The Evolution of the Special Frontier Forces: India’s Top-Secret Paramilitary Group
Samuel Pigott
Special thanks to the faculty at Upper TCV and interviewees
Introduction
October 1962 – Chinese forces swarm over the Sino-Indian border, known as the McMahon Line, the northern boundary of Arunachal Pradesh [1]. Indian troops are overwhelmed by the Chinese offensive [1]. Poorly equipped and inadequately trained to fight in high altitude, the Indian army is devastated by the invaders [1]. Chinese forces advanced into northern India, thus instigating the Sino-Indian War [1]. The Sino-Indian War of 1962 was an absolute disaster for India [2]. In an interview, Major General K.K. Tewari remorsed, “we had no experience in mountain warfare” [1]. The war took place in massive combat zones at altitudes averaging over 14,000 feet [1]. Defeat after defeat, India decisively lost the war to China [1]. Something had to change.
The SFF was India’s response to their defeat in the Sino-Indian War [1]. Commonly known as the Special Frontier Force (SFF) or “The Tibetan Army”, the SFF has repeatedly adapted to the current needs of India. This research examines the Force’s evolution and the vital contributions the Force has made to the Indian military. Additionally, this report will extrapolate the possible roles of the SFF today.
His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama fled to India from his homeland of Tibet several years prior to the establishment of the SFF [3]. Thousands of Tibetan refugees followed their spiritual leader into this new land [3]. Tibetan guerillas began performing operations based out of Mustang, Nepal [4]. With assistance from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the government of India, the legendary guerilla group Chushi Gangdruk, responsible for the safe passage of the Dalai Lama to India, wreaked havoc across the Tibetan border [3].
On November 14th, 1962, the Indian government realized the unique opportunity that presented itself. Thousands of able-bodied Tibetans, born and raised at dizzying altitudes, bitter at the Chinese, had stumbled into India seeking refuge [1]. The humiliation of the Sino-Indian War still fresh in their minds, the Indian Intelligence Bureau created the SFF[1]. The SFF was under the control of the Indian General Inspector Uban, who described the Force as, “a special Tibetan military establishment” [6] whose primary objective was “conducting clandestine intelligence gathering and commando operations along the Chinese Theatre” [7].
However, before the end of 1963, the war had ended and relations between the two Asian powerhouses warmed [6]. The first recruits in the force had been told to prepare for war after six months of training, but that war never happened [6]. Instead, troops were “sent to patrol Indian border territory… from Upper Ladakh to Assam” [6]. They were given strict orders not to attack China, and India began to reconsider the need for the SFF.
Training
The SFF is an elite, covert paramilitary group [8]. Their original mission to perform reconnaissance operations across the Sino-Indian border shaped the regiment’s training [6]. The training described below was given to the first batch of SFF recruits in 1962. It is very likely that some aspects have changed since that time; however, much of the training is still conducted today [9][10]. The training was based around principles of survival, resourcefulness and the mastery of technical skills [6]. Recruits learned “to kill wild animals silently with weapons, suffocation, setting traps, sharpening of weapons” [6]. Soldiers became knowledgeable in foraging for edible vegetation, like where and when beneficial plants could be found [6].
In the training of weapons and explosives, soldiers learned how to make “dro bombs” out of small amounts of dynamite which would then be used to destroy bridges [6]. The United States (US) introduced the Tibetans to the assault rifle, “a light and short rifle… talked to be the weapon made for the third world war” [6]. The assistance provided by foreign countries revolutionized the technology Tibetans were able to use in combat [6]. Recruits learned how to use everything from shotguns to cannons to rocket launchers [6].
Recruits became masters in parachuting into enemy territory [6][9][10]. The US and India sent people to train the new soldiers [6]. “My jumpmaster was Mr. Job and Mr. Harry from America, and Major Narain from India,” writes Ratu Ngawang [6]. Training took place all over northern India, in places like, “Agra, Sarsawar, Dum Duma in Assam and high jump areas like Ladakh” [6]. In addition to jumps, soldiers “learned to use map and compass to locate direction” [6]. They were trained to make signals with smoke for planes to see [6]. Recruits had to “to swim across rivers” and “to rock climb at altitudes of 1500 to 3000 meters” [6].
SFF training was not complete without the instillation of the philosophy of guerilla warfare [6]. “The main objective of guerilla fighter is to defeat the enemy, maintain cordial relationships with local populations and instigate provocation or misunderstanding amongst the enemy” [6]. This philosophy describes the original purpose of the SFF and the intended actions of these new soldiers.
1960s to 2000s
In the mid-1960s, one of the greatest mishaps in espionage history took place [11]. By 1964, China had begun nuclear weapons testing in Xinjiang [11]. The concerned espionage agencies of the United States and India hatched an outrageous plan in the offices of the National Geographic Society in Washington D.C.[1]. The plan was straight from a James Bond plot and involved CIA operatives, SFF soldiers and world-renowned Indian mountaineer and navy captain M.S. Kohli [11]. The idea was to plant a permanent electronic intelligence device powered by a radioactive plutonium battery on top of Nanda Devi, one of the tallest mountains in India, to monitor China’s nuclear weapon testing [11]. From this locale, China’s nuclear tests could be monitored [11].
Adverse conditions forced the team, disguised as a mountaineering expedition, to turn back before the summit [11]. Leaving the nuclear device in a mountain cave, the team retreated [11]. A year later when the team returned to Nanda Devi, the device had disappeared [11]. Historians and conspirators have countless theories on the disappearance of the device. An internet favorite is that the Chinese discovered the device. A more likely explanation is that the device was knocked down the mountain and today sits lodged in a glacier [11]. This failed mission is often framed by historians as the last reconnaissance operation against the Chinese [11]. Or at least, the last operation known by the public.
"When you don't have a country to fight for, you fight for the country that hosts you. [23]" Nanda Devi, shown above, is India's second highest mountain. SFF soldiers ascended the mountain on multiple occasions [11][24]
In 1968, the SFF with the help of the Indian Aviation Research Center became a fully qualified jungle and mountain warfare unit [7]. Now under the control of the young Research & Analysis Wing of the Indian Government, the SFF was headquartered in Chakrata a few kilometers outside of Dehradun [7]. The Chakrata base remains the headquarters for the SFF today [7].
In late March of 1971, West Pakistan initiated Operation Searchlight, a planned military intervention to halt the rise of the Bengali nationalist movement in what was then East Pakistan [12]. Operation Searchlight resulted in a mass genocide estimated to be between 300,000 to 3,000,000 people and the systematic rape of 200,000 to 400,000 women [13]. This tragedy became known as the 1971 Bangladesh genocide [13]. The atrocities just across the border called India into action.
By December 1971, the Indo-Pakistani War had begun [14]. The SFF was one of the units that fought the Pakistan army [1]. Code-named “Operation Eagle”, the Indo-Pakistani War is thought to be the SFF’s first time in a large-scale combat zone [1]. To the surprise of the Indian army, the unit had incredible success on the battlefield [1]. After several smaller skirmishes, the SFF was equipped with just enough support to play a vital role in capturing the city of Chittagong [1]. The success of Operation Eagle garnered the attention of the Indian government. Many Tibetan soldiers received cash prizes for their bravery in East Pakistan [1]. The SFF was making a name for itself, but no one in the force was expecting what would come next.
1975 forever changed the SFF [1]. The Indian government asserted that SFF troops would no longer be deployed within 10 kilometers of the Chinese border, due to warming relations between the two countries [1]. News of this rule was shocking; the SFF’s original purpose was solely for the purpose of combating China. The SFF had to adapt to the needs of the nation to remain a valued component of the Indian military. Instead of dismantling the force, India decided to steer the SFF towards assisting in internal affairs [1].
Over the next nine years, the SFF performed in riot control and counterterrorism operations in northern India [1]. Little is written about these clandestine operations, but the force enjoyed a period free of major combat [1]. Then, in June of 1984, the Indian government was taken by surprise. A man by the name of Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, a militant Sikh leader who had risen to power through extremist and terrorist tactics, sought shelter in the fortified Sikh temple Akal Takht in Amritsar [15]. Bhindranwale is a controversial and complex figure. To the Indian government he was a terrorist [16], but to many Sikh people, Bhindranwale was a martyr who fought for the rights of his people [15]. An eloquent speaker, Bhindranwale was able to articulate the feelings of dissatisfaction and the notion that the Indian government was undermining the Sikh identity [15].
Around the time Bhindranwale arrived at Akal Takht, the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) of the Indian government captured a Pakistani officer [16]. Through interrogation, RAW learned that an estimated one thousand Special Service Group commandos of the Pakistan Army had been sent into Punjab to assist Bhindranwale [16]. What happened next would become known as India’s most controversial military operation to date: Operation Blue Star [17]. Negotiations with the Sikh militants failed, and on June 1, 1984, India’s then prime minister Indira Gandhi ordered the military to launch Operation Blue Star [17]. The military underestimated the fire power of the Sikh militants firmly planted inside the heavily fortified Akal Takht complex, which includes the Golden Temple [16]. Militants also occupied nearly twenty private residences as well as the high rises that surrounded the temple complex [16]. For twenty-four hours, tanks rolled through the streets of Amritsar; stray bullets whizzed past soldiers and civilians [16]. Militants responded with rocket-propelled grenade launchers and other heavy armaments [16]. In the midst of this infamous moment in Indian history, the SFF can be seen on the front line, attempting to storm the front entrance of the complex [17]. Unfortunately, Operation Blue Star was a tragedy on all sides. A high number of civilian casualties and the destruction of sacred sites mark this event as a failure on the part of the Indian military, who were unprepared to deal with the heavily fortified militants [18]. Furthermore, Sikhs around the world felt this was a direct assault on their religion [17].
The Akal Takht temple complex was devastated after Operation Blue Star, India's most controversial military operation [17]. It took years to rebuild [25].
Operation Blue Star is far more complex than presented here. The focus instead is on the SFF’s appearance in a divisive moment in Indian history. Later that year, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her two Sikh bodyguards [17]. The assassination led to the killing of an estimated 8,000 to 17,000 Sikhs in the ensuing riots [17]. During this time, the SFF was assigned to VIP security duty of government officials [7].
The SFF has participated in many of India’s conflicts [1]. Two additional notable events are briefly described below. In 1985, the SFF was vital to Operation Meghdoot in securing the Siachen glacier against Pakistan [19][20]. The Siachen conflict gained international attention as the world’s highest battlefield at over 20,000 feet [20]. Operation Meghdoot was the ultimate test for the SFF. They were the soldiers who could fight in the sickeningly high altitude and hostile environment. The Siachen conflict has continued for decades. In 2003, a ceasefire was signed between India and Pakistan, but tensions remain high [21].
In 1999, India and Pakistan went to war once again [19]. This conflict became commonly known as the Kargil War, as it took place in the Kargil district of the Ladakh region [19]. Pakistani troops crossed the Line of Control and entered the Ladakh region of northern India [12]. The territory was eventually won back by the Indian army, and the war ended later in 1999 [19]. However, in an interview with SFF veteran Tenzin Tsundue, he explained that he was posted at Kargil in 2001-2002 and experienced frequent firefights [10]. “On one side is the Indian army. On the other side is the Pakistani army. They can see each other, but, in between, in the valley, mines have been planted” [10].
The Modern Force
Today the SFF is divided into several units [7]. These units include counterterrorism, the special group, intelligence gathering, combat air control, close protection, internal operations and training foreign military [7]. For the most part, the names of these units describe their duties, but the following is notable information for a few of them.
The counterterrorism unit performs internal operations and is often found in Kashmir combating militants [7]. The special group is an elite unit made up of around 100 troopers divided into four units [7]. These units have wide ranging responsibilities and roles [7]. Little is known about them, other than that they have their own intelligence and signaling branches separate from the rest of the SFF [7]. The intelligence gathering group is rather self-explanatory. Designed to remain hidden for extended periods of time in danger zones, this unit has had great success while deployed around the Pakistan border [7]. One rare example of this comes from Rigzin Dhondup. During his time in the military, Rigzin spent four months disguised as a shepherd on the Pakistan border [9]. He was stationed in a rural village to monitor the Pakistani army base just across the border [9]. To prepare for this position, Rigzin became fluent in the local language and mannerisms [9]. He was also aware of another man in that village who was his counterpart, a Pakistani spy sent to monitor India’s military [9].
The combat air control unit is responsible for training troopers who can effectively call in air strikes from the ground [7]. This was demonstrated in India’s Kargil conflict with Pakistan in 1999 [7]. The close protection group is responsible for the protection of VIPs [7]. The most notable period for this group was directly following Indira Gandhi’s assassination, as described above [7]. Internal operations was a result of the 1975 rule prohibiting the deployment of SFF within 10 km of the Chinese border [1]. In the past, the internal operations group has been responsible for handling riots as well as taking part in the 1984 Operation Blue Star [16]. The training foreign military unit has been sent to train similar special groups in Nepal and the Maldives [7].
In its youth, the SFF was a recruiting powerhouse [7]. The desire to fight China attracted Tibetans of all backgrounds [1]. As the mission of the SFF has evolved from fighting China to reconnaissance missions to internal operations, this great attractor has lost much of its glimmer. A general decline in the force has been noted. At its inception, the SFF amassed 20,000 men [7]. Today the force is comprised of 10,000 active personnel [8]. Today, TCV students who cannot pass the ninth grade are encouraged to consider vocational or military careers [22]. This has been common practice for decades; however, more students are continuing their academic studies today [22]. The students who do choose to join the military often join out of financial need or due to a family history in the SFF [22].
Although the force is now well known, it remains a secretive organization [5]. One reporter for the Hindustan Times wrote that, “It’s so classified a set-up that even the army may not know what it’s up to” [5]. After reviewing the Force’s involvement in many of India’s major conflicts, it is difficult to say what exactly the SFF does today. History and current conflicts suggest that the SFF remains an active unit on the Indian-Pakistan border as this continues to be a site of ongoing conflict [12]. Reconnaissance roles like Rigzin’s as a shepherd likely exist today, monitoring the activity across the fragile border [9]. With bases scattered across northern India, the SFF is ready to deal with internal issues of terrorism, especially in Jammu and Kashmir where terrorism has been a long-term issue [7].
The SFF is a unit comprised primarily of Tibetans in the Indian military [1]. At its inception, the force was designed to combat China inside Tibet [1]. As the needs of India have changed, so has SFF. This secretive elite force has evolved and contributed to many of India’s most well-known military moments [5]. From the Sino-Indian war, the liberation of Bangladesh and the controversial Operation Blue Star to the high altitude combat zones of the Kargil War and Operation Meghdoot, the “Tibetan Army” has adapted again and again, pivoting to ensure the safety of its host country [7][16][20][21].
References
[1] Tibetan Guerillas in Exile: India’s Secret Army. Dir. Kalsang Rinchen. 2008. Film.
[2] Calvin, James Barnard The China-India Border War. Marine Corps Command and Staff College (April 1984). Web Nov. 2019
[3] Mann, Jim. “CIA Gave Aid to Tibetan Exiles in ‘60s, Files Show.” Los Angeles Times, 15 Sept. 1998. Web Nov. 2019
[4] McGranahan, C. Tibet’s Cold War the CIA and the Chushi Gangdruk Resistance, 1956–1974. Journal of Cold War Studies (2006). Web Nov. 2019
[5] Sanyal, Amitava. “The Curious Case of Establishment 22.” Hindustan Times, 15 Nov. 2009. Web Nov. 2019.
[6] Ratu Ngawang, Autobiography. Trans. Passang Tsering (unpublished).
[7] M.D. Sharma, Paramilitary Forces of India. (Kalpaz Pub., 2008).
[8] International Institute for Strategic Studies. The Military Balance 2017. Vol. 2017, (Routledge, Taylor & Francis for The International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2017). Web Nov. 2019.
[9] Rigzin Dhondup (SFF veteran). Personal interview. Nov. 2019.
[10] Tenzin Tsundue (SFF veteran). Personal interview. 23 Nov. 2019.
[11] M.S. Kohli and Kenneth Conboy, Spies in the Himalayas: Secret Missions and Perilous Climbs. (University Press of Kansas, 2002). Web Nov. 2019.
[12] Sumit Ganguly Conflict Unending: India-Pakistan Tensions Since 1947. (Columbia University Press, 2002). Web Nov. 2019
[13] “Bangladesh Sets up War Crimes Court.” News | Al Jazeera, 25 Mar. 2010. Web Nov. 2019.
[14] Azhar, M.R. et. al. Conflict and Development: A Case Study of East Pakistan Crisis, 1971. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (2018). Web Nov. 2019
[15] Sandhu, R.S., Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale - Life, Mission, and Martyrdom. Sikh Educational and Religious Foundation (1997). Web Nov. 2019.
[16] Operation Blue Star - The Untold Story. Dir. Kanwar Sandhu. 2013. Film.
[17] K.S. Brar, Operation Blue Star: The True Story. (UBS Publishers' Distributors, 1993). Web Nov. 2019.
[18] Walia, Varinder. "Army reveals startling facts on Bluestar". Tribune India. 30 May 1984. Web Nov. 2019.
[19] Kapur, S.P. India and Pakistan’s Unstable Peace Why Nuclear South Asia Is Not Like Cold War Europe. International Security (2005). Web Nov. 2019.
[20] Desmond, Edward W. "The Himalayas War at the Top of the World". Time, 31 July 1989. Web Nov. 2019.
[21] Watson, Paul. "India and Pakistan Agree to Cease-Fire in Kashmir". Los Angeles Times, 26 November 2003. Web Nov. 2019.
[22] Yangdol Lhamo (Upper TCV counselor for grades 9-12). Personal interview. 20 Nov. 2019.
[23] Pema Dolma (Upper TCV assistant principal). Personal interview. 18 Nov. 2019.
[24] Shikhar Sethi “Nanda Devi, Lenticular Cloud”, Photograph. 2006 Flikr. Accessed Nov. 2019 under Attribution-NonCommercial 2.0 Generic. https://www.flickr.com/photos/shikhars/452024697/in/photolist-FWKcg-aag1pK-2huY6xc-AaHDy5-aUYgRH-v6yrnq-2bKc4kK-SLmU7x-A4LE8L-UnqG2M-aaiNVd-UHqWXF-aag1gp-FYNdGa-6aJZZd-8QXAb6-e18a7w-T7Gd93-Rmpa7x-6AxxzA-23ShGiP-e189WY-a6Qfor-DnMCKC-Rty3s4-aag1GM-2bzpEyE-q6Z4Kx-cuDV9C-Fvf5KA-28irzr8-9z3Weu-GH4R6S-aafYe6-zFiBjf-A6ptAU-C2VDwP-aJkq9c-oHDFL7-ATv8fA-9YuTWz-ExnXA6-FCVY5o-eSz6FX-aiRuuU-8WisT7-sid5g2-drnEck-8QoW7a-acAtkK
[25] jasleen_kaur “Akal Takht Sahib”, Photograph. 2007 Flikr. Accessed Nov. 2019 under Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic